Analysis of Traditions Concerning Mosaic Authorship

Analysis of Traditions Concerning arial mosaic Authorship mental hospitalThe Christian Holy news is non angiotensin-converting enzyme book, that a library of sixty six books recorded over galore(postnominal) centuries. inside its pages atomic number 18 literary genres that include Law, History, Wisdom, Poetry, Gospel, Epistles, omen, and Apocalyptic Literature. The Bible provoke be likened to other(a) belles-lettres in that it is made up of many types or kinds of language, but it goat distinguish itself from other books cognise to man, in that it claims to be a indite revelation of mans creator.1 The Bible as used in Christianity is made up of the whiztime(a) and New volitions, these ar combined and fate to compliment each other and form the endureon of the Christian church. It is the prototypal-year five-spot books of the Bible and their com status that lead be of concern to this thesis.The maiden five books of the Bible include Genesis, exodus, Numbers , Leviticus, and Deuteronomy. These volumes narrate the story of Israel from the creation of the k instanterledge domain through the period of the flood and the patriarchs, to the Exodus from Egypt, wanderings in the desert, and the giving of the jurisprudence at Sinai. The books conclude with Moses f argonwell to the masses of Israel.2 McDowell and Stewart (1980) assert that, Christianity believes and teaches that the Bible totally is the revealed word of deity, it is an anthology composed of His lyric and deeds and as a resultant role billets itself as Gods word3. McDowell emphasises that depict for this claim can be found deep cut back the Bible itself, he quotes directly from scriptures such as 2 cock 1214 and uses clauses like, And God spoke to Moses, as suggested severalize to back up the Bibles claim.5 The first five books are cognize by several pseudonyms, almost more common than others and oft dependent on the morality matchless follows. Expressions include the Pentateuch, the Five Books of Moses, the Torah and the Book of the Lawfor the purpose of this thesis the scriptures leave shtup be referred to as The Pentateuch.The contents of the Pentateuch can be seen as a partly historical, legal and recital portrayal the five books cover the tale of the elect people from chronicles concerning the creation of the world to the death of Moses and too en come downen us with the civil and religious legislation of the Israelites during the vitality of their great lawgiver.6 This literary grudge is besides a storya story that conveys the history of Israel. Pfeiffer (1957) describes the sexagenarian will as, the meagre surviving portion of the literature of the Israelites.7 Therefore the piece of these hightail its, the measure and fashion of their origin and historicity are of great importance the belief of photomosaic fatherhood or lack of it can affect the building blocks on which godliness itself is structured. The books a re non but of fundamental importance to matchless religion but check recognition in othersChristians put their faith in both the obsolescent and New volitions whilst Judaism holds the first five books of the Old Testament as the most important division of their Hebrew canon.8 Although Islam believes the Quran is Gods go bad word to the world it considers the Old and New testaments to also be divinely inspired.9The aim, therefore of this dissertation is to provide a amateural analysis of traditions that suffocate arial mosaic paper. It will discuss the deal from its infancy and will get rid of through, albeit briefly, three centuries, culminating in its relevance and status in the forward-looking world. This represent is not an attempt to conjure or and soce dis rebel mosaic makeup, it is however an endeavour to take a glimpse into the trash whilst attempting to record its relevance in an historical, scriptural and theological context.This work does not intend t o uncover or discover new knowledge per se, but intends to discuss contemporary contributions and hypothesis. Sources to be used and accessed will include primary and supplementary reservoirs such as the Bible, journal articles and a myriad of published work scholarly, religious and secular in temperament. A historical survey will include a review of relevant literature, some of which is dated, but hitherto relevant in placing the contestation in an historical setting. Much of the literature and indeed the hypotheses surrounding arial mosaic writing tend to remain in scholarly and academic distribution, it is inside these circles that the primary interest has remained.As we shall see, scriptural translations have been spring upn to be less than exact and it is this that provides the back set up for the keep debate. A breakthrough in authorship identity was put precedents in the eighteenth century and came to be known as the accusative Hypothesis. This hypothesis was and is however, s call for a theory of evolution not of man, but of mans recorded dealings with God.10Chapter 1Mosaic Authorship called into question diachronic SurveyHistory recognizes that there were a few problems with the handed-down view of Moses as author. Walton and Hill (2000) explain that although the early church fathers challenged the integrity and ancientness of the Mosaic Pentateuch their manners were deemed as pre- tiny. Furthermore they observe that, it was not until much afterward, that the come along of Reason spurned an era of critical study of the Bible and takeing handed-down understanding of the Old and New Testaments to be questi adeptd11 Challenges to Mosaic authorship were often explained as interlingual rendition or the introduction of additional narrative elaborate that did not appear in the text. Other expla countrys included the fact that Moses was Gods vaticinator and so was in receipt of His divine word.12 However as biblical expertise grew so di d the challenges and new answers to old questions began to emerge.As early as the el occurrenceh century, allusions and suggestions were existence tentatively voiced.13 Abraham Ibn Ezra, a twelfth century Spanish rabbi held the belief that the language used in several passages of the Pentateuch reflected another(prenominal) time and place than that of Moses, views that he was unwilling to say outright. In references to his own views of the passages he wrote, If you understand, accordingly you will recognise the accuracyAnd he who understands will keep silent.14 In the following centurys scholars such as Bonfils, Tostatus, Bishop of Avila, Andreas Van Maes and Thomas Hobbes put forward their own evaluations that questi stard the authorship of the Pentateuch. Their dislodgeings ranged from citing a few sentences, to Thomas Hobbes declaration that the absolute volume of the Pentateuch could not have been penned by Moses.15 In the seventeenth century, Deuteronomy, which reports th e death of Moses, and also describes Moses as the most humble man who ever lived16 was critically assessed by Benedict Spinoza, who concluded that, It is clearer than the sun at noon that the Pentateuch was not scripted by Moses, but by someone who lived long after Moses.17 some(prenominal) of these scholars had attempts made on their lives, their works were placed on the Catholic magnate of Prohibited books or burned others were arrested and forced to recant their views.The history of this dispute therefore shows that many renowned writers, philosophers and historians succumbed to the enticing plethora of hypothesis concerning Mosaic authorship. Josephus, the Jewish historian, states, He (Moses) also set down in indite the form of their Government, and those lawsthe laws he ordained were such as God suggested to him.18 When look more closely at the sacred books of the Jews he further declares And of them five belong to Moses, which contain his laws and the origins of mankind ti ll his death19 These manner of speaking echo down from centuries past, representing the view and opinion of Jewish Scholars in attributing the Pentateuch to Moses. Further along in time, Luthers translations of each of the five books of the Pentateuch are entitled a book of Moses so showing an acceptance of this belief in the historic Christian Church.20 oppose Josephus view and in contrast to Luther, the nineteenth century German critic Hartmann denied Mosaic authorship on the grounds that it was quite literally unimaginable because writing had not up to now been invented. MacDonald (1995), disagrees and asserts that, Archaeological discoveries of the past 100 eld have turn out once and for all that the art of writing was known not solitary(prenominal) during Moses day, but also long before Moses came on the scene.21 These facts do not help prove or disprove Mosaic authorship, however it does provide us with a time frame in spite of appearance which the debate became anthro pomorphized. An historic timeline in this debate is important in that it can be used as a reference point to work forwards or backwards from, fussyly as disputes over the chronological timeline concerning events from the Pentateuch remain relevant today.Genesis as the foundation of IsraelAs the first book of the Pentateuch, Genesis purpose is to tell how and why God came to exact Abrahams family and make a obligation with them. A covenant that is significant in that it is the foundation of Israelite theology and identity.22 Genesis also introduces us to the patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac and Jacob, the three patriarchs of the people of Israel. The patriarchal stories depicted in Genesis are important in that they, lent expression to the fundamental importance of the family for all other forms of smart set in the period when the tribes were developing into a people and state.23 However, controversy surrounds them, many Biblical scholars and archaeologists debate well-nigh whether or not the Patriarchs actually lived. Placing the Patriarchs on an Old Testament timeline depends closely on ones dating (if any) of the Exodus event.24 Hendel (2001) believes that either kind of religious literature in the Hebrew Bible celebrates the Exodus as a foundational event it is seen as the main historical obiter dictum for the religious bond between Yahweh and Israel25 26 W. F. Albright was confident that the Exodus was an historical event and assigned a date of ca. 1297 BCE.27 In comparison the renowned microbe critic Julius Wellhausen asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the Patriarchs but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in later age. In contrast, Claus Westermann asserts that, Storytelling is the predecessor of all history. 28 He explains furtherStorytellers recounted what took place, what they observed, in order to care it with others. The original purpose of the stories was to allow new generations to share in the experiences and knowle dge of their ancestors.29Many biblical scholars and theologians would agree that Mosaic authorship is relevant, however for others it is seen to be irrelevant and convey a Does it really upshot? attitude. Yet there are references made inside the Bible itself that set apart the authorship of the Pentateuch to Moses. These are often drawn upon in defence of Mosaic authorshipthere are about two dozen verses in the Hebrew Scriptures and one dozen in the Christian Scriptures which state or hardly imply that Moses was the author. 30Old and New Testament ScripturesThe Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch is intrinsically connected to the question of Moses as the author or intermediary of Old Testament legislation.31 A Mosaic link between the Old and New Testaments can be found in spite of appearance the texts themselves. New Testament writers use references and quotes from the Old Testament just as Moses within the Old Testament prophesises of what was to comethus enable an affiliation of the Old with the New, creating a volume that merges into one complete tome. The books of the Bible can be likened to any group of books that share the same subject field they express a similarity in their subject roots and yet provide a contrast that is inherited from their author. As one writes in the contemporary world ideas and words need to have references to back them up, evidence and validation that others perhaps have considered your own words. The same could therefore be say of the New Testament writers, following the same pattern allow the different expressions of writers to be expressed.The burden of proofIf the authorship of the Pentateuch were ever to be unequivocally disproved the consequences could be devastating for the religions involved, DeHaan (1982) explains,Prove that Moses did not write the books of the Pentateuch and you prove that rescuer was totally mistaken and not the foolproof Son of God he claimed to be. Upon your faith in Moses as the writer of the five books attributed to him rests also your faith in Jesus as the Son of God. You cannot believe in Jesus Christ without believing what Moses wrote.32DeHaans view is made clear by this simple paradigm, however, closer inspection of the words and their implied significance opens up a chasm of queries and insinuations that require further investigation. When considering this statement one finds that the overarching subliminal message that appears within the text is the necessity of proof. Fundamentally this is a statement about the off-key relationship between Moses as author of the five books, and Jesus who within the New Testament attributes the Law to Moses. These words resound as a modern day echo of Jesus words as expound by New Testament Gospel writer John, For if you believed Moses, you would believe Me, for he wrote of Me. But if you do not believe his writings, how will you believe My words? 33 Moreover, in the Gospel of Matthew, Jesus makes the following statementDo n ot think that I came to abolish the Law or the Prophets I did not come to abolish, but to fulfil. For truly I say to you, until heaven and landed estate pass away from the Law, until all is accomplished. Whoever then annuls one of the least of these commandments, and so teaches others, shall be called least in the kingdom of heaven but whoever keeps and teaches them, he shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven.34These words, ascribed to Jesus, show that Jesus himself acknowledges Moses as the author of the Pentateuch. Furthermore He is sending out a strong message by stating that, in not believing what Moses wrote about Him, we will not believe anything He has to say each. What then is the bearing of the words talk by Jesus upon the question of the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch? In the New Testament Jesus references to Moses are ampleMoses commands, Moses said, Moses wroteare all used within its context by the authors of the Gospels. Stevens (1889), an early Old Testam ent authorship writer, suggests that Jesus speaks of the Pentateuch utilize popular designations of the time and was not in fact overconfident authorship.35Chapter 2 insight and the influence of Source criticismIt was not too long ago that Jews and Christians held the universal view that Moses alone wrote the Pentateuch. A dig into the history of the debate shows that although numerous attempts were made to credit or discount its composition and authorship, Mosaic authorship and its credibility remained stagnant for many years.The authorship debate first became apparent in the aftermath of what is known as the period of enlightenment. The Enlightenment is held to be the source of critical ideas and provided the cultural shimmy necessary for the emergence of a new confidence in the office staff of clement reason.36 Immanuel Kant (1784) in his essay What is Enlightenment? simply describes it as immunity to use ones own intelligence.37 Clarke (1997) describes Kants view of Enli ghtenment as the point at which a human being recognizes his or her autonomy.38 Whereas Ames (1925) depicts religion for Kant as being something a man lived and did not merely think about.39 Many scientists and religionists kindred would gladly accept such a simplification of their problems, 40 nevertheless the Enlightenment period was marked by increase empiricism, scientific rigor, and reductionism along with increasing questioning of religious orthodoxy.41 Questions regarding Pentateuchal authorship had led to rumblings and critical analysis by past Biblical Scholars, however it was French physician Jean Astruc who initiated modern literary or source analysis of the Old Testament.42 According to Pfeiffer (1957) when the Pentateuch was saint in 400 BCE, it was firmly believed that Moses was its author.43 He explains further that Biblical investigations and critical analysis passed through different stages here he cites Astruc (1753), Geddes (1798) and De Wette (1806) as command ment theorists. 44 The Enlightenment thus created a significant shift that resulted in the historical-critical method which suggested that we should accept as true only that which can be by trial and error proven.45 As a result by the 19th century, traditional views on Mosaic authorship had turn backd to be entertained by mainstream scholars and by the termination decades of the 19th century, a theory by Julius Wellhausen became a theoretical forerunner, with the major(ip)ity of critics coming to view his theory with accord.Julius WellhausenIn 1895 Julius Wellhausen gave an explanation of Pentateuchal origin, his hypothesis became known as the documentary or JEDP hypothesis.46 This hypothesis explains that the Pentateuch was compiled from quatern original source documentsdesignated as J, E, D, and P. These four documents supposedly were written at different measure by different authors, and eventually were compiled into the Pentateuch by a redactor (editor). The J is characteri zed by its authors use of the divine name Yahweh. Elohim is the divine name that identifies the E or Elohist document. The D, or Deuteronomist, document contained most of the book of Deuteronomy. The last incision to be written was the P, or Priestly, document, which would have contained most of the priestly laws. We are told these documents were then redacted (edited) into one work about 300 years later in 200 B.C.47Wellhausens timing was perfect, the public were open to new theories as religiosity began to be questioned textual criticism was able to find ground from which its roots could take hold and grow. Goshen-Gottstein explains, the rise of textual criticism depended on preconditions and on certain attitudes and dispositions, beyond the basic linguistic capabilities.48 Wellhausen attained his results by a faithful application of the uses of evidence he assembled relevant facts and build a reasoned construction upon them, this became the characteristic of the subsequent crit ical movement.49 Oswald T. allis (1943) explains Wellhausens method further,The slightest variations in diction, style, viewpoint or subject matter were seized upon as indicative of difference in author, date, and source. The miraculous element is viewed with suspicion and regarded either as evidence of the late date and unreliability of a narrative, or as proof that it represents a primitive and unscientific account of phenomena in which a modern writer would see only the operation of innate(p) processes.50The analysis of the written word became paramount in defining Mosaic authorship as well as adding to the longevity of the debate. Hill and Walton (2000) affirm, the numerosity and complexity of these literary forms that have been directly responsible for the ongoing debate over the composition of the Pentateuch.51 Furthermore they argue that the literature of the Pentateuch is considered to be a collection of rich and literary genres that enhance both the artistic nature and ke y theological themes that unify it.52This new modern world see the naissance of an innovative period of learning and technology this opened the door for a myriad of explanations to be proposed concerning Mosaic authorship. McDowell suggests that the very origin of modern science rests upon the truth of the scripture he goes further to explain that there is a God that created and designed an ordered universe this prompted men like northward to search for certain scientific laws to explain this order.53 It can be said then that science and the scriptures do not cancel each other out they simply look at the world from different persuasions, but are not finally contradictory.54Merrill Unger expresses concern about rejecting Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch in favour of the Documentary theory he suggests that buttoned-up lore should realise anew the essential unsoundness of critical hypothesis and cease trying to reconcile its potent unbelief with the tenets of historic evangel ical Christianity and conservative Judaism55 William Henry Green (1895) disagrees with this hypothesis and claims that the books of the bible have nothing to fear from investigations into its genuineness and credibility he goes on to suggest that thorough inquisitive can only result in establishing more firmly the truth of the claims, which the Bible makes for itself, The bible stands upon a rock from which it can never be dislodged. 56 Hill (2000) explains that the source analysis approach, which gained prominence during the nineteenth century, not only affected the way scholars viewed the Pentateuch as a literary composition, but also had far reaching implications for the historicity of the patriarchal narratives. Furthermore he states that, Julius Wellhausen, the most important of the source critics asserted that the Pentateuch conveys no historicity for the patriarchs, but merely reflects patriarchal stories retold in a later age.57Towards the contemporary world a look at arch eologyScholarship can sometimes become stagnant, however in the case of Pentateuchal studies the debate between different points of view stretchs to ebb and flow. As yet, no new consensus has emerged about the composition of the Pentateuch.58 Publications over the past one hundred years show that many other theories or indeed modifications of theories have arisen. The Wellhausen theory itself has come under much criticism and though it yet has its proponents, it is no longer a universal agreement of authorization in critical scholarship. The subject then remains an enigma and is no closer to a solution now, than it was when first queried. Yet the debate does keep back to thrive, aided because, with the passage of time the earth unleashes its hidden treasures and technological inventions are created that allow us to clamber back the centuries and glimpse into the past. Fresh discoveries it seems keep up new evidence that scholars pounce upon to argue their case.One area in cont emporary society that has emerged in favour of biblical accuracy is the field of archeology. Archaeology is defined by Muncaster (2000) as the systematic study of things that cultures have left behind.59 W. F. Albright the great archaeologist concludes that the past 100 years has seen archaeology verify some of the history contained in the bible, he states There can be no doubt that archaeology has confirmed the substantial historicity of Old Testament tradition. 60 Finkelstein and Silberman (2002) attest that, Archaeology has helped us to reconstruct the history behind the bible.61More recent publications aim to verify the historicity of the Old Testament using archeologic evidence, Muncaster (2000) suggests that the accuracy of the Old Testament is vital to the Bibles message and that archaeology provides one means of confirming the historical accuracy.62 To confirm or prove the historical accuracy of the Bible one needs to consider the implications of proof. Does proof relate to disproving the facts of the Bible and the account held within it, does this mean that the words spoken by Jesus in the New Testament and the history of the Israelite nation is condemned to hearsay? Archaeology offers some answers, but is it concrete? Gnuse (1994) expresses the opinion that, Who or what Moses was ultimately is irrelevant for he stands as a symbol of process. The traditional figure of Moses symbolizes the initiation of the religious journey.63 McDowell stresses a cautionary note in relation to archaeology, as he says, all too often the idiom Archaeology proves the Bible arises, in answer to this he uses the word prove to stress the interpreters usage that could cause incorrect assumptions,Archaeology cannot prove the Bible, if by that you mean prove it to be inspired and revealed by God. If by prove, one means, Showing some biblical event or passage to be historical. Then it would be a correct usage. 64The world within which we now live is far take from the world o f Wellhausen and even further removed from the era of scribes and patriarchs. In a time where archaeology has uncovered scripts that peel back time and allow modern technology to wield its powerthere is simmer down no right or wrong answer that appears as a forerunner. Using science and technology as an aid, scholars, theologians and archaeologist are still embroiled in a quest to answer the questions that revolve rough Bible authorship. Scrolls retrieved from the caves in Qumran are being drawn on by scholars to provide scriptural evidence and possible explanations of Mosaic authorship. Cook (1994) explains that the Old Testament prophets, Foresaw a golden age for Israel when her various trials, punishments, exiles and tribulations were over65 This Golden come along includes the arrival of a messiah one who would reign by cessation and blessings of every kind.66 Verification of these prophecies can be established and linked to Moses in Deuteronomy Moses speaks of a coming proph et like himself67. Further, Isaiah describes the one who brings nifty news, who proclaims peace, who brings good tidings, who proclaims salvation.68 Qumran, harbour of the Dead Sea Scrolls, held within cave four a scroll that refers to Moses as Gods anointed, Strugnell cited in Cook (1994)Cursed is the man who does not arise and observe and do according to all the commandments of the Lord in the mouth of Moses His Anointed One, and to walk after the Lord, the God of our fathers, who commands us from Mount Sinai.69Could this then be seen as Proof that Moses was a prophet, an anointed one who prophesized the coming of another like him? A prophet who was himself to foretell all that was to come70 If so then is this proof that Moses also wrote the Pentateuch? One could argue that if Moses words are proven to be reliable through the fulfilled prophecies within the Bible and the archaeological findings that appear to corroborate them. McDowells admonitory note on archaeological evidence re-surfaces in Bartlett (2002), when he states that, There are still major problems between the relationship of the archaeological findings to the fact and contents of the scrolls. However, he also professes a hope that, subsequent research will throw light on them.71 Scholarly differences of opinion are clearly visible as is the interpretation of related scripture. Bernstein (1997) in reviewing Lawrence Schiffmans work, Reclaiming the Dead Sea Scrolls points out that the narrative and legal Pentateuchal texts found in the caves, show the array of exegetical methods fake for the Qumran interpreter.72 There is no doubt, declares Bernstein,That any reviewer will find one or another chapter of the book deficient from some specific perspective this will always be the case when a broad deduction of the Dead Sea Scrolls is written by virtually any scholar, for no one is equally competent in all the complex handle of Dead Sea Scrolls scholarship. What Schiffman has done is to contextual ize these texts for interpretation, and that is more important than his particular interpretation of any specific issue. 73It is this difference in interpretation that allows the debate to continue to thrive. A contemporary scholar in biblical studies, Richard Elliot Friedman equates Mosaic authorship to, a detective story spread across the centuries with investigators uncovering clues to the Bibles origins one by one 74 Furthermore, he states that, There is hardly a biblical scholar in the world who would claim that the Five Books of Moses were written by Moses or by any one person.75 And yet Moses is arguably a leading figure in both religion and history, his words are the foundation of faith for over half the earths population.76 Phillips (2003) clarifies that the three great monotheistic religions of the world have derived from the revealed holy laws of the ancient Israelites. He concurs that Moses God became not only the God of Judaism but of Christianity and Islam.77 For the authors of scripture then, history is a theological tool by which God reveals Himself. Archaeology can authenticate history but it cannot authenticate theology, and from the biblical perspective, history devoid of theology is meaningless.78ProphecyThe Jewish nation believes that history and prophecy are inextricably intertwined,79 history was recorded by more than one culture and was therefore documented, however for Israel, prophecy was assurance that the writings were from God.80 81 Prophecies detailed in the Old covenant are said to be longer-term prophecies those fulfilled by Jesus in the New Testament and ultimately classed as inspiration from God.82 McGrath (2007) describes the majority position within Christian theology has, in one hand emphasize the continuity between the two testaments, while on the other noting the distinction between them.83 One of the strongest arguments used by adherents to Mosaic authorship, stems from the predictions it makes within its pages abou t the future. These events are what give Biblical scholars reason to continue their stake of Mosaic verification. Of these prophecies one in particular is used to corroborate Mosaic authorship the advent of an anointed one who was to arrive in the future.Often when one reads about the Mosaic Pentateuch one can find statements that refer to the infallibility of scripture, in particular with regards to Jesus Christ. Livingston (2004) claims that Christ knew the scriptures thoroughly, even to words and tenses84 and that Jesus also believed, every word of scripture, the historicity of the Old Testament and that it was spoken by God Himself, thereby affirming that Moses wrote the Pentateuch, even thought the pen was held by men.85 Furthermore, Livingston states that, if we are to believe that his conduct was guided by prophecy, then he was subject to a life that was written for him, does this limit the choices he had to make or was he just Gods tool, there to fulfil Gods plan? However Jesus obeyed Gods word and His authority. He came to do Gods will and in doing so fulfilled Old Testament He fulfilled Old Testament prophecies about Himself.86 LangMarch (1995) explains that Jesus places a great amount of emphasis on the fulfilment of scripture this he maintains confirms its veracity.87 However this point is one that cannot be overlooked for if Biblical Scholars find the scriptures to be in error then the obvious conclusion would be that Jesus too was in error and could not have been the infallible son of God.Chapter ThreeCurrent views and hypothesisThroughout the history of this debate scholars have battled in order to propose their own interpretation of scripture. These battles are still relevant and consume the minds of contemporary scholars. Time, it seems has not diminished the pursuit of truth, contemporary scholars are just as committed in their attempts to crystallize the authorship problem as their past contemporaries. In the past four decades there have been numerous publications concerning Pentateuchal authorship and views are still divided. P.N. Benware (1993) states that, Moses was the human author of Genesis and the other books of the Pentateuch he adds,These five books of the law were written by Moses alone, with the exception of Deuteronomy 34, which records the death of Moses The Pentateuch, therefore, is an inspired, inerrant, authoritative document written by the man Moses. 88The authors of the New C

Strategic Issues Facing Lockheed Martin

St saygic Issues Facing Lockheed MartinLockheed Martin is a global security companionship that employs ab egress 136,000 people worldwide and is princip all toldy engaged in the research, design, development, manufacture, integration and support of advanced technology systems, products and services. It was take ined in 1995 by the merger of Lockheed grass with Martin Marietta. It has its Head shadowers in Bethesda, MD (Maryland). The Corporation reported 2009 gross sales of $45.2 billion, a backlog of $78 billion, and cash flow from trading operations of $3.2 billion.Lockheed Martin is wiz of the biggest defence makeors in the world. One of the biggest unexampleds in 2010 was that the United States had decided to bargain up to 2443 F-35 Lightning II poor boy jets. The F-35, as well as known as the pin Strike Fighter, is the U.S. ex whizzration departments apostrophizeliest weapons purchase at up to $382 billion all all oer the next two decades. This makes it the bi ggest host portion knocked out(p) ever. All this supporters to pose an stakes in this telephoner.Cost Surge The Lockheed Martin F-35 program is facing manufacturing inefficiencies, part problems and at least six engineering technical challenges as state of matterd by the U.S Government Accountability Office (GAO). As oftentimes(prenominal) costs prevail grown and scheduled extensions ar handlely.Comp eachs contribution to the internal EconomyA large part of Q2 GDP performance, +0.39% of total GDP growth 1.6% for the U.S owes convey to wars and general justification. The defensive structure sector of which Lockheed Martin is a part has contributed heavily to the countrys overall GDP. Lockheed Martin is withal involved in new(prenominal) public activities.Compe reallys contribution to the regional EconomyLockheed Martin is a global security organization with its reach in countries and regions wish Canada, United Kingdom, Africa, Europe, and Middle East, the Americ as, Asia Pacific and Australia. Lockheed Martin has customers around the world and has partners in much than 50 countries outside the United States. Furthermore it has helped countries worry misfire by enhancing their defensive structure capabilities.Recent Strategic ChoiceLockheed Martin completed the divestiture of its effort Integration Group backing to Veritas Capital on November 23rd, 2010 for $815 million and withal plans to sell off PAE in 2011.Source of Information on the Companywww.lockheedmartin.com(355 Words)Executive SummaryThis assignment basically tells about the defence mechanism intentness, discussing one of the major(ip) demurral contractors in detail in the world and some some other variables linked to the industry and the caller-up a care. This acoustic projection covers a lot of aras, utilize assorted tools for the purpose of analysis based on facts and our judgment. There argon a hardly a(prenominal) works utilise in this project to asses s the state of the lodge and the industry a like the first gear beingness the sedulousness brio Cycle which specifies where the plea industry on-line(prenominal)ly stands whether it is introduction, growth, maturity or decline. other baby-sit utilise much(prenominal) as the Key Factors for Success is physical exercised to determine basically what factor ins any prone caller-up call for to exist in the falsification industry. A nonher one would be Porters Five Forces which determines the forces bear upon the follow. These ar models based on factors relating to the industry. The other three models practice sessiond ar based on the company itself including SWOT which dies a companys strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and affrights SFAS which take the near unfavorable two factors of the lot and TOWS Matrix which helps to devise new strategies in admiration to SWOT factors.After an in depth analysis, the current company performance is assessed based on effici ency, effectiveness and return to investors in regard with their new strategic choice. Review of options is the next step in the project which takes into account the strategies formulated in the TOWS Matrix and determining which ones are the nearly key or critical to implement. The next area which is implementation of strategies provides an overview of if the futurity strategies put forward be deployed effectively and efficiently based on factors like structure, systems and policies. And the last part of the project determines the reclaimableness of all the six models used in the project.(300 Words)The Defense manufacture as you see is in the development phase of the Industry Life cps. A few jumper lead firms in the industry and the ones that are surviving are huge firms like Boeing, Lockheed Martin, and Northrop Grumman. These leading giants continue to innovate and fashion new products and services and refine overage ones in put together to verification in the game. T he defense industry is basically a never dying industry due to the global conditions and field security challenges faced by the different nations of the world.Companies like Lockheed Martin lease been in that location for 16 grades now. There are several reasons on why the Defense Industry is in the growth stage. To begin with, despite the cartridge clip the defense companies devote been around, they continuously monitor customer needs and usher in new products and technologies into the grocery. This leads to increase in sales and growth. For example, the recent development of the F-35 fighter jet which was make contingent with the collaboration between Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman and BAE Systems has given the defense industry a new source of life.It is a new groundbreaking product, which get out intrigue customers to buy it and then resulting in incr sticking(p) sales and at long last growth.Technology development, innovation and engineering are the core areas of the defense industry. Companies like Lockheed Martin and Boeing meditate these areas and respond accordingly. They apply up with changing propagation by introducing new products and technologies takeing the Defense Industry well in the Growth phase. Moreover it shadower be said that the Defense Industry is in the High Growth part of the Growth phase. Why it throne be said so is because although the sales are increasing, the increase in sales is non exceptionally high. The compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of the Aero quad and Defense sector in the period 2005-2009 was 8.7%. The sector grew by 0.4% in 2009 compared to 10.4% in the earlier social class.As said before, the Defense Industry is a never dying Industry and it continues to grow year by year by providing new technologies, weapons and advanced warfare systems.These Key Factors listed above are rattling important to survive in the Defense Industry.Taking excogitation and Technological advancement first, these are two of the nigh important factors for achievement in the Defense Industry. The giants in the industry like Boeing and Lockheed Martin hold to keep up with changing quantify by providing or innovating new technologies and products. The field of study demands for defense technology are solidly high. And hence, the defense companies need to have advanced technology and innovative and creative personnel in invest to economize to the nation and hence get ahead in the defense sector. The case of the products is also real important. Customers john switch between defense contractors if they are non satisfied with the quality.The reliability of the products is also an important factor in the Defense Industry. As the products are designed for Warfare, product reliability is very crucial. Cost effectiveness is also among the most important factors in the Defense Industry. Every country has a defense budget. The Defense companies have to be with the budget. Companies also need to have a masterly scarperforce in mark to nap with complicated tasks including the likes of manufacturing array aircrafts. Diversification is also a very important factor to survive in the defense industry. Companies like Lockheed Martin, Northrop Grumman and Boeing are heavily diversified into related markets including manufacturing naval shipbuilding, aircrafts, helicopters etc. Also, Defense companies need to have political science contacts in lodge to carry out Lobbying.Overall Lockheed Martin is fairing pretty well in the Defense Industry. Although, compared to Boeing and Northrop Grumman, it has a few shortcomings in areas like being Cost Effective it is handling the other key factors very well. It is well above the average level of operations in the defense sector.Porters Five ForcesThreat of New Entrants (Low)The threat of new entrants is sort of low in the Aerospace and Defense Industry. Few factors like very high capital requirements to sustain operations, having highly differentiated products act as entry barriers into the industry. The defense industry has a few big firms including Lockheed Martin, Boeing etc. who are very well established. Their products are highly differentiated, acting as a barrier also the customers are reluctant to switch to a new companys product because personnel have to be trained once again in tramp to use the new products raising switching costs.Companies in the defense industry need to have a huge measuring stick of capital in order to sustain activities like building military aircrafts, naval ships etc. A new company will not have a large customer base and hence substance abuse achieve economies of scale in order to reduce per head costs. argument among Existing Firms (High)The disputation among existing firms in the Defense industry is quite high. The leading Defense contractors like Lockheed Martin, Boeing and Northrop Grumman have intense competition over winning defense contracts. As the firms in this I ndustry are few, they analyze each others move very carefully and issue counter moves accordingly. Firms in the defense sector use innovation and new technology to in order to differentiate their service and turn back develop than the competitor which ultimately increases competitive rivalry.Threat of substitutes (Low)There are actually no real substitutes for the defense industry. The military aircrafts, equipments, and other systems give the gatenot be re vestd with anything else. For example, considering the commercial aircraft segment in the Aerospace and Defense Industry, on that point are alternatives like Rail Transport which whitethorn act as a possible threat due to factors like global warming and carbon footprints. But, the Defense celestial sphere doesnt have any substitute. For example, a countrys Air Force shadowernot be replaced by zero waiver gliders it has to be military aircrafts. It is because they cannot serve the similar purpose. A nations Defense Sector cannot be substituted as they are the only ones who can serve the National Security purpose.Bargaining power of Buyers (Low)The bargaining power of buyers is low in the Defense sector. Although, the buyers have some financial muscle as they are mostly Government organizations, this power is somewhat diluted as the political sympathies needs the defense systems and programs. It is very important to the giving medication. Now, companies in the Defense Industry like Lockheed Martin dont just provide military aircraft and hardware like missiles and other weapon systems but also cater to the repair and logistic needs of their buyers. This means that it increases switching cost for the buyers and hence reduces buying power. The differentiated products provided by the Defense companies also decreases buyer power. For example, a product specially designed by Lockheed Martin like the Exoskeletal Load Carrier HULC cannot be designed by Boeing and vice versa.Bargaining power of Suppliers (L ow)The bargaining power of providers is low in the Defense Industry. Firstly, on that point are some(prenominal) suppliers to choose from. Also, in that location is no switching cost considering the suppliers which makes the power of the suppliers weak. The supplier costs also dont form a large part of the organization. In the defense industry, the defense companys major costs are in regard with RD, advanced technology and skilled lay downforce rather than supplier price. The major suppliers of the defense industry like Steel and aluminium manufacturers cannot forward integrate and compete directly with the defense companies. For Example, a steel manufacturer cannot build complex aircrafts and weapons. This further reduces supplier power.Relative power of Stakeholders (High)The relative power of stakeholders is pretty high in the Defense Industry. Stakeholders like the Government, customers and suppliers can advert the company majorly. Taking into favor the political relation , the government has strict laws and regulations for each company to follow. In case of a breach or due to any other viable reason, the government has the power and to match it the authority to terminate contracts and transactions. This may lead to losings in the company. The suppliers and customers can also affect the company.Internal FactorsStrengthsLockheed Martin has quite a number of strengths. Having a well diversified portfolio has enabled Lockheed Martin to not be over dependent on a single market segment and also serving a large customer base. Lockheed Martin is strong financially as per the stats given over the eld. It had shown an increase of 5.8% in revenues in 2009 compared to the fiscal year 2008 and is also the largest defense contractor by revenue as of FY2009. In addition, it is one of the leading companies in providing tactical and transport aircraft and other defense systems. Lockheed Martin serves a very large customer base, which provides for economies of scale . And also the company is very advanced proficiently, its recent achievement being the JSF F-35 program.WeaknessesLockheed Martin also lags in a few areas. In 2009, about 85% of the net sales were made to the US government. This shows over dependency on one customer which would affect its growth. some other area it has to consider is cost. It is not really a cost effective firm. A recent example would be the high developmental costs for the JSF F-35 project. Plus, the employee military capability is poor in Lockheed Martin. And the turnover rate is also pretty much near high. Lockheed Martin also ranks no. 1 in federal misconducts. This affects the reputation of the company and the scenario of future contracts.External FactorsOpportunitiesOne of the opportunities that Lockheed Martin can trespass on is the rise in defense spending by the US. The DoD has seen consistent growth within the last ten years as it grew from $300 billion to almost $550 billion. Further, the congress agr eed to gillyflower military operations in various countries. Also, the US space and military market has witnessed strong growth and the trend is likely to continue. another(prenominal) sharpen could be the space business initiatives. Lockheed Martin is a prime contractor for a number of space business initiatives initiated by NASA. More initiatives will create new business opportunities for Lockheed Martin. One other point is the easing of merchandise controls by the US with India in order to swap with the country. Another one would be the cyber security needs which are increasing globally to mess hall with cyber warfare.ThreatsThere are quite a number of threats that Lockheed Martin is facing. Lockheed Martin deals with numerous government agencies and entities, and as a result has to face regulations relating to disclosure of cost and acquisitions. Also, Lockheed Martin has to deal intensely with competitors like General Dynamics, Northrop Grumman and BAE systems in regard to competitive factors such as technical superiority, reputation, price, etc. Also, The Company is involved in environmental and potential proceedings relating to soil and groundwater contamination, disposal of hazardous waste etc. which impact the companys profitability. Substitutes like the Russian MIG fighter jets and others can act as a possible threat to the company. Also, Lockheed Martin has to keep up with changing times by innovating new products and services and getting new tech to keep up with speedy technological changes.Strategic Factor Analysis smallThe fact that the US military market is release to grow may be viable for a short period or an arbitrate period. So the company has to look for other viable opportunities which would be there for a long term. For the short term, it is definitely an opportunity which the company should capitalise and ultimately as a result it will clear the company in different ways like for example increase in sales.IntermediateA factor l ike not being propellant is in the intermediate segment. Not being dynamic or not being very agile to change is a weakness which will affect the company in medium term. This is because issues like these need to be acknowledgmented in the medium term at least if not in the short. If not done so, the company may not be able to deliver accordingly and lose out to the competition. Same is with the factor of substitutes. They can be there for an intermediate term. Lockheed Martins main competitors like Boeing and Northrop Grumman are always there with new innovations and products. So, in order to stand up to the competition, Lockheed Martin has to bring in new technologies and unique products every time. As discussed earlier, the rivalry is intense and companies come out with new and unique products to chip frontwards in the game.LongFactors in the long run considers all the quatern strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Considering financial performance, a company like L ockheed Martin earns about 80% of its revenues from military sales. It receives many of the defense contracts and if delivered as supposed to, it will reside in a high-priced daub financially. It is also in a position to acquire some other firms. An example would be Gyrocam Systems LLC on thirty-first august, 2009. Also, all the companies have to be advanced technologically in order to meet the demands of the customer. They have to provide distinctive products which are not possible without advanced technology. Factors like export control easing by the US towards India are also in the long run. Once eased, it will trade with the nation for quite some time. Government regulations also stay for a long time.TOWS MatrixStrengths (S)Financial statsNew TechnologyWell equilibrise PortfolioEconomies of scaleStrong market positionWeaknesses (W)Dependence on the U.S governmentCost managementNot agile to changing conditionsEmployee attitudeContract misconductsOpportunities (O)Rising defens e spendingGrowing military and space marketSpace business initiativesExport-control easingCyber Security needsSO Strategies embellish business into India by acquiring firmsUse advanced technology to deliver new and unique products to the outgrowth marketWO StrategiesReduce the dependence on US government by elaboration into other countriesChange employee attitude to deliver better productsThreats (T)Government contracts and regulationIntense competitionenvironmental compliance costsSubstitutesTechnological changesST StrategiesRegular and timely Upgrades of systems and technology to stay competitiveAcquisition of firms to gain new technology in order to deal with substitutesWT StrategiesBe dynamic to keep up with rapid technological changesReduce costs in order to consent with the regulationsSO Strategies (Maxi-Maxi)SO strategies are organise considering the use of a companys strengths to capitalize on the opportunities. tally to the figure above, I have devised two strategies wh ich will do so. As the US has eased its export controls towards India, Lockheed Martin can explode its business there by acquiring firms and so on. This can be done as the company is financially strong and is in a position to do so. Another strategy that can be used is that Lockheed Martin can use its advanced technologies and systems to capitalize on the opportunity of the growing military and space market by offering new and differentiated products.ST Strategies (Maxi-Mini)Now, ST strategies are create by considering the use of a companys strengths to minimize the threats. Two strategies have been devised. The first one is to regularly upgrade the systems and technology of Lockheed Martin in order to deal with threats like rapid technological changes. In the defense sector, big players like Boeing and Northrop Grumman may have better tech compared to Lockheed Martin and so in order to compete it has to have timely upgrades of its own technology. Also another strategy to be cons idered would be an acquisition strategy. In the defense sector there are quite a number of substitutes. Lockheed Martin can acquire more firms in order to gain access to new technologies and minimize the threat of substitutes. These strategies are possible because of the strong financial position of Lockheed Martin.WO Strategies (Mini-Maxi)WO strategies are organize by considering the capitalization of opportunities by overcoming weaknesses. One of the strategies that can be considered is reduce the dependence on the US government by increaseing overseas. Recently, US eased its export controls towards India, which means Lockheed Martin has the opportunity to make sales in the latter. This can reduce the over dependence on the US government for sales. Another would be changing employee attitude by providing a better work environment, which in turn will help to develop better products for the growing military and space market and hence increasing sales.WT Strategies (Mini-Mini)WT s trategies are formed by considering the minimization of weaknesses and avoiding threats and are basically defensive. One of the strategies would be to be more dynamic to changing conditions. By being more dynamic, Lockheed Martin can stay up with changing times and avoid the threat of rapid technological changes. By analyzing the conditions and acting, for example, Lockheed Martin upgrading its systems and technology, the company will be able to stay competitive. Another would be to effectively reduce costs by use methods that are efficient, so as the excess costs are not transferred to the final products. In case of Lockheed Martin, it has to comply with government regulations regarding costs and any default may result in termination of contracts and transactions.Assessment of current Company performanceEfficiencyLockheed Martin was very efficient in its recent strategy of divesting its business in EIG (enterprise integration group). It also plans to sell most of its PAE business unit. Lockheed Martin was very efficient in using the Divestiture strategy. Lockheed Martin had an after tax revenue gain of $184 million ($0.51 per share). Not many resources were required to do so as EIG was a very high quality segment of their business associated with the support of organizations like the National Reconnaissance Office, other elements of the intelligence community. Lockheed Martin did not require much effort and resources in order to carry out their divestiture strategy.EffectivenessLockheed Martin was very effective in carrying out the divestiture strategy. There were many prospective buyers for the business unit. Lockheed Martin effectively made the sale to Veritas capital without much hassle from either side. The cash generated from this transaction was effectively deployed in various ways like in the specific 4th nincompoop of 2010 13.2 million shares were repurchased for $916 million, discretionary contributions of $840 million to the pension trust, cash d ividends totalling $269 million which is an increase from the previous year in the same quarter and expending capital of $426 million. harvest-festival to InvestorsLockheed Martin paid a total dividend of $269 million in the fourth quarter which shows a $29 million increase from the payout in the 4th quarter of 2009. Also the total dividend payout in 2010 being $969 million showed an increase of $61 million over the previous years total payout. It clearly shows that Lockheed Martins cabbage had gone up in 2010 by quite a good margin.The corporation was paying out more dividends makes it clear, that quite some bills was being made by it. The share value also went up after the divestiture was completed by $0.51 per share.Review of OptionsLockheed Martin can consider the use of various strategies devised above in order to deal with major threats and weaknesses by using opportunities and strengths. One of the most critical strategies that should be considered as an important option by Lockheed Martin is the expansion strategy. Adopting this strategy will help Lockheed Martin to capitalize on a valuable opportunity and at the same time, help it to reduce its excess dependence on the US government. Lockheed Martin can expand in to other countries by using either acquisitions or by chance they can enter into a Joint Venture with some other companies.Another strategy could be the acquisition strategy. Lockheed Martin can consider acquiring firms in order to get new technology. This will help them to stay very competitive in the market, deal with the competition and at the same time help them to deal with a major threat of substitutes. Another strategy that would be recommended is being more dynamic to change. By being more dynamic, Lockheed Martin will analyze the market constantly and keep up with changing trends and factors like rapid technological changes. Being a defense contractor, it has to keep up with such changes in order to keep up with the competition.A nother one would be the changing of employee attitude towards the organization and work. This can be done by providing a cooperative and healthy work environment and proper training of personnel. This in turn will benefit the organization in the long run by providing dedicated and incite personnel which will help to produce higher quality products and services. carrying out of StrategiesStructureNow, in order to carry out the most critical strategies that are stated above, the company should analyze their structure and make changes if they have to. The current horizontal structure of Lockheed Martin can well serve the purpose. Lockheed Martin gives all the employees initiative to work and deliver better results. There is an immense mother wit of team work and team spirit. Lockheed Martin enables its employees to make decisions at their respective levels and hence shows decentralization of power to a certain extent. It is useful in need employees and efficiently catering customer needs.SystemsLockheed Martin basically has all the system facilities to deliver the strategies. In order to deliver the expansion strategies Lockheed Martin needs to develop software(s) and systems for the place where they are expanding. Lockheed Martin has all the necessary systems in place in order to deliver the most critical strategies. It can enhance its capabilities by upgrading systems factors like software(s) and machines in order to cater better to the strategies.PoliciesIn order to comply with the strategies above, Lockheed Martin should adopt a recruitment constitution. Specially in using the expansion strategy, Lockheed Martin needs to employ new workers in order to sustain such strategies. Employing dedicated and motivated personnel would surely benefit Lockheed Martin. Another policy that can be adopted by Lockheed Martin is a reward policy. Lockheed Martin can reward individuals by using factors like pay increments and bonuses. Cooperative teamwork and let rewards w ill help to change employee attitude and motivate them to deliver better products.Usefulness of ModelsIndustry life wheel aroundThe industry life cycle was very helpful in assessing the specific stage of the life cycle in which the defense industry currently is. More importantly it has helped in analyzing the fact that why the defense industry is in that specific stage. Industry life cycle is an important tool in the analysis of an industrys life. It has given us an in depth view of where the industry is and also what the companies in the industry are doing to stay alive.Key factors for successThe second model is very useful in assessing the most critical factors that a company needs to survive in the specific industry, in this case the defense industry. It was useful because it gave us an overview of the industry in regard with the factors required to succeed in it. It told us what a company needs to survive, how their competitors are fairing in the core areas and which areas can the company make changes.Porters five forcesPorters five forces helped us to analyze the six crucial and constant forces that affect the industry. It has helped us to analyze how the industry is affected by these six forces and what stand do the companies have in consideration to these forces.SWOTSWOT analysis was very useful as it helps is assessing the companys internal factors strengths and weaknesses and external factors opportunities and threats. It helped us to look into the company in depth to find out where it lags and where it excels. Also it helped us to look into valuable opportunities which the company can capitalize on to grow or expand and also threats which the company faces.SFAS matrixThe SFAS matrix is basically derived from the SWOT. But what makes it very useful is that it helped us to choose the most critical factors of the four points strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. It has helped us to analyze what are the critical strengths and opportunities f or our company and how long are they going to stay there. Also, It helped us to analyze our weaknesses and threats and how much time we should take to address them. Overall, it was a very important tool in assessing the critical factors to which the company should respond accordingly to grow and stay competitive.TOWS matrixAnother model derived from SWOT. This was very useful in basically formulating the best strategies possible for our company that they can deliver in accordance with the four factors.

A Look At Materialism English Language Essay

A Look At physicalism English Language Essay1) Are young people in your country much heartyistic than they were in the past? If so, do you ideate is a full(a) or bad thing? If non, what ar they much interested in?2) Think of a town or pip in your country that you know quite well and complete the interpretation of that place with the usage of both neutral and colorful words to lay down your story interesting.IntroductionMaterialism is the importance placed on actual possessions. well-nighone with a high level of satisfyingism, depict as materialistic, considers material possessions to be central to their heart and their identity, and focuses a good deal of their cypher on acquiring possessions. Someone with a low level of materialism, described as non-materialistic, or non materialistic, does not consider acquiring possessions to be particularly important, although they vary in the extent to which they acquire material possessions in order to meet other objectives, such as social acceptance. termination QUESTION 1Nowadays wipe out half people uniform past people ar not materialistic, but still rent half people not like in the past and they atomic number 18 so materialistic. In todays ordering, materialism takes part in e rattling persons life, no matter what social class they argon. The idea of being materialistic stand be considered immoral, but t present is a fine line between morality and personal interests, so now is to externalise the people In the past, people are not in competition with one another, because in the past people is more s board life, they feel that t here is suitable enough to eat and enough to hindrance are already satisfy, what is more And they impart not buy a lot of items not expenditure things. But nowadays people but now there is maturation materialistic, Like to buy items not worth a lot, become rattling materialistic. I think now society people become so materialistic is a bad thing. Because materia l impact on society is a complex issue. Materialism gage be defined as a desire to pursue wealth and other real things that drive out provision, ignoring the importance of spiritual values, the dominance of material comfort. This substance is characterized by the people for money, avaritia, the tendency to become rich quickly, even if it involves a lot of risk. It excessively includes a desire to jazz in mansions, wearing very boastful-ticket(prenominal) clothes, jewelry and driving flashy cars. In short, I expect to live in luxury.Effects of Materialism on Society is materialism and greed lead to personal satisfaction with social life echoed many of the well-nigh important aspect. Mood, made because of materialism, greed, the scotch businesss caused by the real population. The real problem may not be so simple, but it may be one of the formers here. Greed is not confined to money, and the acquisition of power. Where there is power, rotting is imminent. One other negat ive emotions, desires, selfishness, jealousy, a lot of loss of sense of materialism, to make people forget their moral values, often do not apprehend the difference between the only difference between the abuse is an important choice. Good quality and comfort is wrong. They believe that everything about is the environment, their beliefs are to provide the human need is based on the conclusions of science they turn in lost faith in God, because they refused to believe anything, we can not see or hear or touch is the worst. Therefore, they come to the crimes committed later on their senses. Therefore, the materialism, the negative impact of user groups.Suggestions for Restructuring our Society is we still make our world towards a better run. Therefore, we need to find purpose in our lives. Everyone unavoidably to make some changes to his views. We compliments from the material world itself. This will leave alone the two sides, with or without the material things we have, we w ant happiness. This will enable us to think, If I put a good thing, but if I did not understand I said, it does not matter. This is not so easy, we want to spate a friendly spirit, but not impossible task. Gave us the economic rough stage some valuable lessons. As a result, the substantial world, we can go buy a couple of days, but we are still in our power to survive difficult circumstances, the real thing. We are very pleased that we can not lose ourselves, support our families. Than the material things of life more important than others do. We must give top precedency to work hard, not every fast road to success. There is truth, honestness and hard work meaning, can give us a very satisfying relationship. We need to improve our reality, rather than the substance of knowledge. In our non-material aspects of life is the main reason is lack of understanding, not only individuals, but as a social collective. Spirituality can help us understand our true identity. If we lose the we alth of alternative, but if we lose ourselves, we can not be replaced. You can also refer to the creation of the theory for more information. A practical solution to these problems, whether economic or otherwise, can be obtained by introspection. We can find out what caused the problems we face, but we are today. fixed out of the material world of their own, recognizing that true self in your sleep. This is to save the real growth in the community mental block.Finally they more interested is money to materialistic. Because young people feel that money can buy to meet their own, such as cars, clothes, trousers, watches, shoes, mobile phones, video games. Some younger love to buy brand-name, not the brand name with no interest, they feel that is good with good to respect with a brand name, self-aggrandizing a new generation of young people to be adversely affected.ANSWER QUESTION 2Cameron Highland was named after and discovered in 1885 by an English man named William Cameron durin g a survey operation in the Titiwangsa Mountain Range. Forging a path through the dense vegetation, he finally reached a magnificent and sublime pla afternoon afternoon teatimeu shut up in the mountains. From then on, the British colonists recognized its potential for growing tea, a precious commodity then. Over time, townships began to sprout around Cameron Highlands as the tea plantations grew. After Malaysias independence, its fashionableity as a mountainous vacation retreat steadily rose (Though the idea was already implanted in 1925 by British Official Sir George Maxwell). Today, it is a popular phaeton destination to lambaste on holiday, due to it engine cooling system atmosphere, serene environment and picturesque scenery. The Cameron Highlands is part of Pahang state, though most entry points, via Tapah and Simpang Pulai, lie in Perak state. From Ringlet to Brinchang, the Cameron Highlands is mostly cooling end-to-end the year, enabling visitors to enjoy a holiday h ere anytime. In terms of culture, the Chinese make up the largest community in Cameron Highlands, caterpillar tread most of the businesses and plantations in the valley. Indians and Malays from the next two largest communities with similiar economic activities. There are also a large number of labourers from Bangladesh and Myanmmar, who come to work the palm of tea and vegetables. Finally, you can also find tourists from places like Europe and Asia that have decided to settle down in the Cameron Highlands and call it their home.Cameron Highlands is the only holiday destination in Malaysia where strawberries are grown and harvested commercially. The strawberry farms found here are also open for visitors, making them one of the top tourist attractions in Cameron Highlands. The farms are great places for shopping products made from strawberries, such as jams and tarts. The best season to enjoy strawberries is usually from April till June, the driest months. The Cameron Highland tea p lantations are its hallmark of fame and one of the reasons why this place is so popular as a holiday destination among locals even. Tea plantations carpet the border valleys in a fine layer of yellow green tea leaves, and most of them are open to tourists and visitors who can purchase their own tea bags, watch workers pluck tea as well as enjoy a simmering hot cup of tea with scones. Tea was the reason William Cameron saw potential and founded this valley, which eventually became Malaysias top highland holiday destination. The nighttime Market in Brinchang is an important fixture in the time table of Cameron Highlands. Also called Pasar Malam, which means night bazaar, the Brinchang Night Markets takes place of Friday and Saturday nights, during peak tourist seasons and national holidays or festivals, the night market will open throughout the week in response to the good business and flood of visitors from Kuala Lumpur, capital of Singapore and all over. The Bee Farms in Cameron H ighlands allow visitors and tourists to see how sexual love is cultivated here from bees on a moderate scale. The delicious nectar is harvested from the combs made by bees that are housed in an elevated wooden box. One such honey bee farm is located just about Ringlet, in a secluded ecological niche reached from a narrow alley branching off the main road.If you want to shoot landscapes at Cameron Highland, I can introduction some amiable place to shoot. Boh Tea is the largest tea producer in the Cameron Highlands. Like Bharat, it also has two estates, but most people will only visit the Sungai Palas estate in Brinchang. The other tea field lies near Ringlet in a place called Habu. The Boh Tea estate in Sungai Palas is an awesome place to visit, with fields of tea growing around hills that seem to stretch for miles. As this is the highest tea estate in the Cameron Highlands, blur creeping over the landscape is a common feature. The road will end at a T-junction right leads to B oh Tea Center age left goes all the way up to Gunung Brinchang. Boh also has the only manufacturing plant open for visitors to look and marvel at the processes and methods used in the occupation of tea. In the Lake House is a stunning colonial architecture of the minute ring of the boutique hotel. This is the second most expensive place to stay the night in the Cameron Highlands. Price range is matched only in the Cameron Highlands dawdle Tanah Rata and Brinchang than between. Asian tourists, however, this colonial mansion spiritedness digging, because it evokes a feeling of living in Europe. In the small ring, located in the Lake House Hotel for the dekameter but there are some dark, dense forest facial expression for it in the background. In addition, there are many tourist attractions in Cameron Highlands.Finally, In the Cameron Highlands is a beautiful, cool weather and climate is a good place. As Cameron and more tourist attractions, so there are big festivals and holiday s, many people will choose to Cameron over a holiday, curiously to a hot summer day, people will choose to Cameron summer. closure RecommendationCameron Highlands is the smallest district in the state of Pahang which is located in the north-western recessional of the state. One of the wonders of Malaysia, it is the largest and most famous hill resort in the country. This highland paradise still retains much of the charm of an English village. Being a primarily agricultural domain, you will find an abundance of vegetables and fruits farms here. Cameron Highlands is also the steer producer of flowers and tea in Malaysia. Be prepared for a lovely sight of extraordinary flowers you wont see flourishing elsewhere in Malaysia At Cameron Highland can feel very enjoy and relax.BibliographCameron Highland, online, retrieved 12 March 2011 fromhttp//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cameron_HighlandsCameron Highland Strawberry Farm, online, retrieved 12 March 2011 fromhttp//www.strawberryparkresorts.c om/about-the-resort.htmlCameron Highland Lakehouse, online, retrieved 12 March 2011 fromhttp//www.lakehouse-cameron.com/index.php

Needs Assessment for Cervical Cancer Screening

Needs Assessment for Cervical Cancer cover chargeReferencesBailie,R.S., McDonald,E.L., Stevens,M., Guthridge,S., Brewster,D.R. (2010). Evaluation of an Australian indigenous housing programme residential area aim impact on crowding, infrastructure function and hygiene. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. inside10.1136/jech.2009.091637Bunchs theory Google Search. (n.d.). Retrieved from https//www.google.com.au/search?q=Bunch%27s+theoryhl=engws_rd=sslhl=enq=theoretician+Bunchs+theory+community+ self+control+ mannikinnirf=theories+Bunchs+theory+community+self+control+modelDepartment of Health. (2014). Cervical cancer screening (may 20). Retrieved from http//www.health.vic.gov.auMarmot,M.G., Wilkinson,R.G. (2006). Social determinants of health (2nded.). Oxford Oxford University Press.Mikhailovich K, Morrison P, Arabena K. (2007). Evaluating Australian Indigenous community health promotion initiatives . a selective review. agricultural and Remote Health, 746(7). Retrieved from http//www.rrh.org.auPap tests, Pap smears, HPV, cervical cancer PapScreen Victoria. (2014, August). Retrieved from http//www.papscreen.org.auProchaska and DiClemente. (1983). Transtheoretical Model of Change, a theoretical model of behavior change. Stages of Change Model/Transtheoretical Model (TTM). Retrieved from currentnursing.com/nursing_theory/transtheoretical_model.htmlQueensland cardinal and Torres Strait Islander. (n.d.). Women?s Cervical Screening Strategy 2006 2010 by light-haired Angus.Round,R. (2005). Planning for effective health promotion evaluation. Dept of Human Services, Deakin University.The Social identicalness Approach in Social Psychology. (n.d.). Bunchs theory Google Search. Retrieved from https//www.google.com.au/search?q=Bunchs+theoryhl=engws_rd=sslhl=enq=theorist+Bunchs+theory+community+self+control+modelnirf=theories+Bunchs+theory+community+self+control+model1

Enantioselective Disposition of MDMA and its Metabolites

Enantioselective Disposition of methylenedioxymethamphetamine and its MetabolitesINTRODUCTIONAmphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) atomic number 18 a gathe go of medicines, ab come to the forely synthetic in origin, that be structurally derived from -phenethylamine ( control 1).Amphetamine (AMP, Speed) was ab initio synthesized in Berlin in 1887 as 1-methyl-2-phenethylamine. It was the first of several chemicals, including methamphetamine (MET, Ice) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (methylenedioxymethamphetamine, Ecstasy), which fork over equal structures and biologic properties, and atomic number 18 referred to collectively as amphetamines (Cody, 2005). Since 1887, amphetamine was ideal to be a humans invention (Berman et al., 2009), but the tangled was open up in 1997, along with methamphetamine, nicotine and mescaline, within two species of Texas acacia bushes (Clement, Goff and Forbes, 1998). AMP and MET be to the highest degree unremarkably ab apply medicines. They impart asymmetric center on and exists as atomic number 53 of the two likely enantiomorphs (see signifier 2) (Cody, 2005).In adjudicate to of importtain anorectic activity while limiting undesir adequate side effects, commutations have been do to amphetamine and methamphetamine. Others have been made to enhance the stimulatory activity or to negate legal restrictions on the manufacture and usage of the window glasss (Cody, 2005). The cogitate conferences of amphetamine derivatives atomic number 18 shown in purposes 3 and 4. depend 5 shows a nonher group of forerunner medicines that is metabolized by the body into AMP and MET.Administration and neurotoxicity of amphetaminesAmphetamines be generally administered as oral capsules. This r bulgee results in a gradual increase in drug immersion, which accounts in around an hour and maintains effective drug levels for 8 12 hours. Amphetamines dismiss excessively be injected into the circulation (Parrott et a l., 2004). Amphetamines readily cross the fund-brain restraint to r severally the sites (Berman et al., 2009) of action in the brain. The acute organization of amphetamines produce a wide range of point-dependent behavioral changes, including increase arousal or wakefulness, anorexia, hyperactivity, perseverative movements, and, in particular, a state of pleasurable affect, elation, and euphoria, which brush off lead to the ab utilization of the drug (Berman, 2009). This causes amphetamines to be associated with acts of violence. Acute drug abusers forget develop tolerance, where the same dose of drug has diminishing physiological and mental effects. They need to increase their dot if they wish to gene ramble the same strength of effect. Cross-tolerance will besides move on as tolerance to unmatched drug affects another drug with measuring stickised neurochemical profile. As a result, drug abusers will seek for another partition of drug and become polydrug users (Parr ott et al., 2004). Chronic drug abusers usually take in amphetamines finished injection or smoking ice amphetamines. These abusers suffer some(a)(prenominal) health problems and a reduced life expectancy. They ar much vulnerable to HIV (human immunodeficiency virus), AIDS (acquired immunity deficiency syndrome) and SIDS (sudden infant final stage syndrome) (Parrott at al., 2004).Clinical usesIn accordance with the Convention on psychotropic Substances of 1971, amphetamines are enlisted as narcotic compounds in the List of psychotropic substances on a poorer floor international control. The list is nimble by the International Narcotics Control Board. These compounds are prohibited to be imported and exported in countries like Japan, Nigeria, Pakistan, Thailand and etc (International Narcotics Control Board, 2003). Amphetamines and related compounds are clinically use for narcolepsy (sudden day- clipping onset sleep) and Attention Deficit Hyperactivity roughness (ADHD) in y oung children. It was formerly employ as a shortly-term slimming promoter, as an antidepressant and to boost athletic military operation (Parrott et al., 2004).3,4-METHYLENEDIOXYMETHAMPHETAMINE (methylenedioxymethamphetamine, ECSTASY)History of methylenedioxymethamphetamine abusemethylenedioxymethamphetamine, also know as ecstasy, ETC, or Adam, is one of the closely comm entirely if ill-treated amphetamine derivatives that was re-synthesised by Alexander Shulgin during his research public life at the Dow Chemical Company in 1970s. Soon methylenedioxymethamphetamine was organism synthesised in illicit laboratories, and became popular as recreational drug since whence. As MDMA does not have any clinical/medical use, it is plan as Class I illicit drug by the American Drug Enforcement Agency in 1985 (Parrott et al., 2005). Also, MDMA other ring-substituted phenylethylamines were generically separate under the Misuse of Drugs Act as Class A drugs, in United Kingdom (Wikipedia , 2009).Chemical Properties of MDMAThe methylenedioxy analogues of amphetamine (see jut out 3) are series of compounds referred to designer drugs. They include methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), methylenedioxyethylamphetamine (MDEA) and MDMA (Hensley and Cody, 1999). The synthesis of N-alkyl-MDA derivatives only produces () racemic confections. As a results, only racemic forms of (capsules, loose powder or tablets) the compounds are interchange in the illicit market and abused (Matsushima, Nagai and Kamiyama, 1998 Fallon et al., 1999).MDMA is chiral, possessing two enantiomers, S-(+)-MDMA and R-(-)-MDMA (see catch 6), with S-(+)-MDMA is more(prenominal) potent than R-(-)-MDMA (Lyon, Glannon and Titeller, 1986 Shulgin 1986). The basic structure of MDMA is ?-phenylisopropylamine group (see Figure 6), with a methylenedioxy group forming a 5-membered ring including C-3 and C-4 of the benzene ring (Cho and Segal, 1994). The empirical formula of MDMA is C11H15NO2 (Shulgin, 1986).MDMA i s a phenylisopopylamine derived from safrole, aromatic vegetable oil found in sassafras, nutmeg, and other plants. The methyl group on -carbon (R2) (see Figure 6) of MDMA confers resistance to oxidative deamination of this compound and, therefore, increased its metabolous half-life (Cho and Segal, 1994). match to Cone and his colleague Huestis (2009), S(+) isomer of MDMA is responsible for its psychostimulant and sympathetic effects and the R(-) isomer for its hallucinogenic properties.Uptake, preoccupancy, metabolism and excreta of MDMA in human bodyMDMA is usually formulated in tablets of its racemate (11 alloy of its enantiomers) in doses ranging from 50 to 200 mg (Pizarro et al., 2004), which is most commonly interchange in batches of 35 for ?10 (Wikipedia, 2009). MDMA powder is also found in the market at a high(prenominal) price, indicating that it has high purity. MDMA powder is not usually insufflated (snorted) as it causes sneezing, pain and nose carrys. MDMA canno t be smoked and is very rarely injected intravenously (AMCD, 2008).MDMA is absorbed into the blood streams and distributed in body. Postmortem compendium by Letter et al. (2002) shows that MDMA is distributed in cardiac muscle, both lungs, liver, both kidneys, spleen, the four brain lobes, cerebellum and brainstem, fat tissue, serum, vitreous humor, water supply, hair and bile upon administration. Rapid distribution of MDMA in body is mainly ascribable to its basic property of pKa around 9.9 and low plasma protein book binding, MDMA can diffuse across biological matrices that is more panellingic than blood (Pichini, 2005). After an oral administration of MDMA, the plasma concentration peaks in within 1.5 to 2 hours (Cone and Huestis, 2009).MDMA is metabolized by multiple pathways (see Figure 7), primarily involving N-demethylation and O-demethylenation. The enzymes involved in the pathway are a group of cytochrome P450 isoenzymes, including CYP1A2, CYP3A4, and CYP2B6.Firstly , MDMA is O-demethylenated to 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA) followed by O-methylation to 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA). The enzymes involved in the metabolic process are CYP2D6 and catechol-methyltransferase respectively. At a lower rate, MDMA is N-demethylated to 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) (a reaction regulated by CYP2B6), which is further metabolized to the catechol intermediate (3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine) and finally O-methylated to 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA). In the reactions, the -carbon responsible for stereochemical properties of MDMA is not abnormal and all the metabolites are chiral compounds that whitethorn be presented as a mixture of their enantiomers. In addition to these major compounds, some other secondary metabolites derived from the activity of monoamine oxidase on the amine residue are also pee-pee (Kolbrich et al., 2008 Pizarro et al., 2004).N-demethylation of MDMA yields 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), an active meta bolite exhibiting similar pharmacological properties as the parent drug. A further O-demethylenation of MDA produces 3,4-dihydroxyamphetamine (HHA) which is mainly regulated by CYP2D6. Additional metabolites are form by O-methylation of HHMA to 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) and of HHA to 4-hydroxy-3-methoxyamphetamine (HMA), deamination, and conjugation (Cone and Huestis, 2009).The metabolic pathway mainly happens in the liver. virtually people with reduced CYP2D6 shows lower metabolic rate of MDMA and so are more susceptible to MDMA toxicity (ODonohoe et al., 1998 Schwab et al., 1999).Physiological and psychological effects of MDMABerman et al. (2009), Hensley and Cody (1999) and Piper (2008) inform an increased alertness and euphoria, increased heart rate, blood pressure, respiration and body temperature upon administration of MDMA. United estate Office on Drugs and Crime (2006) conveys that chronic amphetamines abuse causes agitation, tremors, hypertension, memory loss, hallucinations, insane episodes, paranoid delusions, and violent behavior. Withdrawal from high doses of amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) could result in skanky depression. MDMA impairs the temperature control by hypothalamus. This causes MDMA users to die of hyperthermia (Piper, 2008) and some die from hyponatraemia, i.e. the dilution of blood due to excessive fluids taken to counteract set off exhaustion (Parrott et al., 2004).Neurotoxicity of MDMANichols (1986) and Vollenweider et al. (1998) categorize MDMA as entactogens, a exceptional class of drug that produce changes in mood, social interactions or feelings of social closeness and changes in perception. MDMA shares some of the pharmacological effects of stimulants and serotonergic hallucinogens (Cami et al. 2000 Gouzoulis-Mayfrank et al. 1999 Liechti da Gamma and Vollenweider, 2001 Tancer and Johanson 2003).MDMA acts an agonists on confused neurotransmitters action oddly serotonin. Boost in serotonin turnover induced by MDMA tends to generate feelings of contentment, elation, impertinence and intense emotional closeness to others. This causes people to enjoy themselves without their normal concerns and inhibitions. MDMA is classified as neurotoxin. Studies have found evidence for dopaminergic nerve wipeout in higher brain regions. As shown in Table 2, the higher brain function much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) as memory, information processing and storage, labyrinthine stimulus analysis and decision making of MDMA users are impaired.CHIRAL do drugs ANALYSISChiralityChirality is formally defined as the geometric property of a rigid object (like a molecule or drug) of not being superimposable with its reverberate image (McConathy and Owen, 2003). Achiral molecules can be superimposed on their mirror images. Molecules that are not superimposable with their mirror images are said to be chiral. to each one chiral molecule will have at least one chirality centre or stereogenic ce ntre (Leffingwell, 2003). Chirality centre of an extreme molecule is usually a carbon atom, bonded to four different groups of atoms. Chiral molecules with one chirality centre exist in two enantiomeric forms (see Figure 8).The two mirror images are termed enantiomers. Both molecules of an enantiomer pair have the same chemical formulae and can be cadaverous the same way in 2 dimensions but in chiral environments such as the receptors and enzymes in the body, they will behave differently. Enantiomers are identical in all physical properties except for their optical activity, or coverion in which they string out plane-polarized light (McMurry, 2004). Some optically active molecules rotate polarized light to the left (levorotatory) while others to the right (dextrorotatory) (Baker, Prior and Coutts, 2002). A racemate (often called a racemic mixture) is a mixture of 11 amount of both enantiomers of (+) and (-) enantiomers and is optically smooth. The optical inactivity results fro m the rotation caused by one enantiomer canceling out that produced by its complemental enantiomer (Beesley and Scott, 1998). The absolute configuration at a chirality center is designated as R or S to unambiguously pull back the 3-dimensional structure of the molecule. R is from the Latin rectus and means to the right or clockwise, and S is from the Latin sinister for to the left or counterclockwise (McConathy and Owen, 2003 Baker, Prior and Coutts, 2002).pharmacological aspect of chiral drugsIn pharmacology, chirality is an important factor in drug efficacy. closely 56% of the drugs currently in use are chiral compounds, and about 88% of these chiral synthetic drugs are used therapeutically as racemates (Leffingwell, 2003). As antecedently mentioned, MDMA is a chiral drug that exists in two enantiomeric forms as shown in Figure 6. Chemical modification at the positions R1 to R9 (refer to Figure 9) of MDMA results in unlimited number of pharmacologically active compounds, some o f which are more potent stimulants than others.Although there are several possibilities for side chain modification, substitution on the aromatic ring contributes the most to substantial qualitative differences in pharmacological effects. Hence, it is important to discriminate between the enantiomers present in the drugs administrated as both the enantiomers of a chiral drug may differ significantly in their bioavailability, rate of metabolism, metabolites, excretion, potency and selectivity for receptors, extenders and/or enzymes, and toxicity (McConathy and Owen, 2003). The difference in interaction between a chiral drug and its chiral binding site is illustrated in Figure 10.The different domain of a drug molecule has different binding affinity towards the active site of biochemical molecules in the body. As shown in Figure 10, it is plain that the active enantiomer has a 3-dimensional structure that allows drug domain A to interact with binding site domain a, B to interact wit h b, and C to interact with c. In contrast, the inactive enantiomer cannot be aligned to bind the same 3 sites simultaneously. Due to the difference in 3-dimensional structure, binding of the active enantiomer exerts a biological effect, while the inactive enantiomer does not possess any (McConathy and Owen, 2003).The hypothetical interaction of drug enantiomers is supported by the studies done by Matsushima, Nagai and Kamiyama (1998) and Kolbrich et al. (2008) shows that stereoselective cellular transport of MDMA allows the drug to accumulate at different extent in biological matrices. According to ODonohoe et al. (1998) and Schwab et al. (1999), stereoselectivity also affects genetic differences in the expression of metabolic enzymes that are responsible to metabolize MDMA in the body. For example, CYP2D6 is expressed as 2 phenotypes one being extensive and another as poor metabolizers. Thus, it is obvious that the stereo limitedity of a chiral drug can alter absorption, eliminati on and cellular transport of the drug itself.Analytical aspect of chiral drugsApproximately 50% of marketed drugs are chiral, and of these some 50% are racemix mixtures of enantiomers or else than single enantiomers (McConathy and Owen, 2003). Differences in pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic activities of the enantiomers of drugs administered as racemates are increasingly appreciated (Porter, 1991). Thus, quantification and qualification of drugs of abuse play important roles in the prediction of and protection from the risk to human health (Nakashima, 2006).Two main approaches to chiral drug analysis have been taken. In the indirect approach, the drug enantiomers are derivatized with an optically slender chiral reagent to form a pair of diastereomers, which may then have sufficiently different physical properties for insularism to occur on conventional chromatographic columns (UNODC, 2006 Porter, 1991). In the direct approach, the enantiomers form transient rather than covale nt diastereomeric complexes with a chiral selector present either in the planetary or the unmoving chromatographic phase (Porter, 1991). Each of these analytical approaches has advantages and disadvantages prevail, depending upon factors such as time, purity, chemical processing, and inherent side reactions (Carvalho et al., 2006).Indirect chiral drug analysisIn order to prosperedly resolve the enantiomers, a stable, optically pure chiral derivatizing reagent (CDR) has to be visible(prenominal) for the covalent formation of diastereomeric derivatives (Porter, 1991). Diastereoisomers of amphetamine-type stimulants can be prepared using different reagents such as acylchlorides, alkylsulphonates, isothiocyanates, chloroformates. Moshers acid R(+) or S(-)-methoxy(trifluoromethyl)phenylacetic acid, Moshers acid chloride, and N-trifluoroacetyl-1-prolyl chloride (TPC, also known as TFAP-Cl) are the most popularly used chiral derivatizing agents (UNODC, 2006). The reaction scheme may be illustrated as followsThe purity of the chiral derivatizing agent is vital in the process of separation of the racemic mixture. The resolution of a racemic drug by the R-enantiomer of a CDR contaminated with its S-enantiomer causes an additional pair of diastereoisomers to be formed, each of which is the enantiomer of one of the first pair (Porter, 1991), as shown in Figure 12.As a result, the enantiomers R-R, S-S and S-R, R-S would coelute in conventional chromatographic systems due to their similar physical properties. Racemization during the reaction would bring about analytical error especially when attempting to quantitate small quantities of one enantiomer in the presence of a king-sized excess of its antipode (Porter, 1991).Methods using chiral derivatization are essentially less expensive and do not require specialized equipment or columns. The use of normal, achiral columns allows easy integrating of chiral separations into routine analysis schemes (UNODC, 2006). Thus, c onsiderable flexibility in chromatographic conditions is available to achieve the desired resolution and to eliminate interferences from metabolites and endogenous substances. Moreover, a passably good selection of chemically and optically pure CDRs is available for derivatizing various functional groups (Porter, 1991).Direct chiral analysisChiral gas chromatography (GC), High Performance gas Chromatography (HPLC) or Capillary Electrophoresis (CE) are popular method actings in direct analysis of illicit drugs (UNODC, 2006). Direct analysis does not require a CDR for covalent diastereomeric complexation. Instead, separation of chiral drugs occurs via the interaction between the enantiomers and a chiral selector. The chiral selector is an optically active compound that may be present in the mobile phase for use with conventional HPLC columns or it may be incorporate into the stationary phase to provide specialized chiral stationary phases (Porter, 1991). Calvalho (2006) lists the most successful chiral packing materials i.e. amylose, Pirkle type stationary phase, cyclodextrin, proteins, and cellulose ester and carbamate derivatives used in GC. Sometimes, derivitization may be carried out with a nonchiral reagent, in order for appropriate molecular interactions with the chiral differentiator to occur and/or to impart requisite spectral or fluorescent fixture properties to the molecule (Porter, 1991). HPLC with fluorescence detective work method is done by Al-Dirbashi et al. (1999) in attempt for the determination of methamphetamine in human hair. Nakashima (2006) claimed that the use of a chiral stationary phase in GC to separate pairs of enantiomers after suitable derivatization with an achiral reagent is able to achieve a powerful separation.Recently CE has become a highly competitive tool for chiral analysis of many compounds since it allows for the highly streamlined separation of enantiomers without derivatization and specialty columns (capillaries) (P orter, 1991 Ramseier, Caslavska and Thormann, 1999). For the separation of amphetamine-type stimulant using CE, chiral additives such as hydroxyl-propyl important-cyclodextrin are added in the running buffer. This eliminates the need of derivatization in analysis of chiral drugs commonly used (Iio et al., 2005 Ramseier, Caslavska and Thormann, 1999).Separation of chiral drugs using gas chromatographyUNODC (2006), Pirnay, Abraham and Huestis (2006) and Rouen, Dolan and Kimber (2001) agree that gas chromatography/ pack spectrometry (GC/MS) is the most common instrumental technique for analysis of amphetamines and derivatives. However, GC/MS still has its limitations.Chiral gas chromatography is selected as the separation technique if the materials are volatile and stable at elevated temperatures. In addition, if the solutes can be derivatized to form a sufficiently volatile product without racemizing the enantiomers, or changing their racemic proportion, then GC may be the choice. G C offers much higher efficiencies, much higher peak capacities and significantly higher sensitivities than LC. It follows, that GC can easily contend with multicomponent mixtures, especially mixtures from biological standards. In addition, the columns have short equilibrium times, trace impurities are easily assayed, and the analyses are shorter providing much fast-breaking sample throughput (Beesley and Scott, 1998).Prior to analysis by GC, compounds check outing functional groups with active total heats such as COOH, OH, NH, and SH have to be derivatized. This is because these compounds tend to form intermolecular hydrogen bonds, hence reducing volatility of the compounds in the machine. They are also thermally unstable and can interact with either fused silica or the stationary phase, causing peak broadening (Danielson, Gallgher and Bao, 2000).Most underivatized amphetamine-type stimulants (ATS) have break apart ions of low m/z ratio, low intensity, and only one scatter ion of higher abundance (base peak). Derivatized ATS usually produces fragment ions of higher m/z ratio and higher abundance. Molecular ions with greater molecular mass have greater diagnostic value, due to the reason that they are not affected by interfering background ions such as column bleed or other contaminants (UNODC, 2006).Capillary cataphoresis as a complementary method in the analysis of MDMAAccording to Meng et al. (2006), capillary dielectrolysis (CE) can be used to complement GC and HPLC methods of amphetamines analysis due to their high efficiency, accuracy, very high resolution, and tolerance to biological matrices. Capillary electrophoresis utilizes the electrical nature of supercharged molecules and enables the separation of molecules based on charged in an applied electrical field (Landers, 1995). MDMA is an organic compound and so its enantiomers are not charged. Hence, for the separation of enantiomers of MDMA, micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) is uti lized (Beesley and Scott, 1998). This is a limited electrophoresis system in which the chiral selector is added to the electrolyte as additives, or be immobilized on the capillary tube surface as a tralatitious type of stationary phase (Beesley and Scott, 1998). The applied voltage causes the analytes to migrate through the capillary and being separated (Landers, 1995).Figure 13 shows the instrument used for micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC). As seen in the figure, during sample separation, the individual analytes are driven in the appropriate direction by their inherent electrophoretic mobility (neutral species are static, anionic detergent species move towards the anode, and cationic species move towards the cathode) with a magnitude represented by the arrows. Concurrently, the EOF of buffer towards the cathode, with a magnitude greater than the individual electrophoretic mobilitles, results in electrophoretic zone formation as all analytes (neutral, positive, and neg ative) are move past the detector (Landers, 1995). The detector produces an electropherogram that is almost the same as the one obtained from the gas chromatography (see Figure 14).The chiral selector used in micellar electrokinetic chromatography is usually beta cyclodextrin. Cyclodextrin is an oligosaccharide with an external hydrophilic surface and a hydrophobic cavity, in which they can include other compounds by hydrophobic interaction (Tagliaro, Turrina and Smith, 1996). This allow for the separation of molecules with different sizes, charges and polarity.The aim of this literature review is to investigate the effectiveness of GC/MS and CE in the analysis of MDMA enantiomers. Not only that, the enantioselective disposition of MDMA in hair and urine is also reviewed. The use of hair and urine as a medium for drug spying is also explored.CASE STUDYUrine analysisUrine is the most widely used biological specimen for the analysis of illicit drugs (Nakashima, 2006 Rouen, Dolan an d Kimber, 2001). According to Ramseier, Caslavska and Thormann (1999), urinary screening of drugs of abuse is usually performed with immunoassay, whereas GC/MS is the standard approach employed for confirmation of the presence and absence of a specific drug or metabolite. The goal of urine drug testing may be stated as the reliable demonstration of the presence, or absence, of qualify drugs or metabolites in the specimen (Chiang and Hawks, 1986). Despite a number of pertinacious shortcomings, such as its susceptibility to tampering, urinalysis is a well-researched technology in which most of the problems have been identified and addressed, if not resolved. It offers an intermediate window of detection making test scheduling an important issue in many situations (Rouen, Dolan and Kimber, 2001).The Physiology of Urine ProductionBlood is drained through the kidney in the rate of 1.5 litres per minute. Ultrafiltration of blood that occurs at the kidney leads to the production of urine continuously. During urine production the kidneys absorb essential substances. Excess water and waste products, such as urea, organic substances and inorganic substances, are eliminated from the body. The daily amount and composition of urine varies widely depending upon many factors such as fluid intake, diet, health, drug effects and environmental conditions. The volume of urine produced by a healthy adult ranges from 1-2 litres in a 24 hour period but normal value outside these limits are frequently reported (Rouen, Dolan and Kimber, 2001 Pichini, 2005).Incorporation of Drugs into UrineThe possible ways of drug disposition in the human body is shown in Figure 15. When a drug is smoked or injected, absorption is nearly instant and excretion in urine begins almost immediately. According to Pichini (2005), 80% of the drug is metabolized by the liver, leaving 20% of the drug to be excreted unaltered. However, absorption is slower when a drug is orally administered and excretion may be delayed for several hours.Generally, a urine specimen will contain the highest concentration of parent drug and metabolite within 6 hours of administration. As for MDMA, the peak concentration is reached after 2 hours of administration (Cone and Huestis, 2009). As drug elimination usually occurs at an exponential rate, for most illicit drugs a dose will be eliminated almost completely within 48 hours.A number of factors influence the detection times of drugs in urine including the measuring of drug administered, parent drug and its metabolite half-life, cut-off level used, and a number of physiological factors. Fallon et al. (1999) reported that the plasma half-life in humans of (R)-MDMA (5.8 2.2 h) was significantly long-run than that of (S)-MDMA (3.6 0.9 h). It is also noted that for many of drugs, frequent, multiple dosing over extended periods of time can cause the drug to accumulate in the body resulting in significantly extended detection times, and leads to the possib ility of hair analysis which will be discussed in the later part.The detection times in urine are significantly greater than the detection times in blood because most drugs are rapidly eliminated from blood both by the bodys metabolic system and by excretion into urine (DuPont and Baumgartner, 1995). As the bladder is emptied only a few times during the day, the urine becomes a reservoir of drugs and metabolites (AIC look for and Public Policy, 2003). According to DuPont and Baumgartner (1995), most abused drugs, including their metabolites, fall to low levels in the blood within a few hours of last drug use and so urine samples generally have a short management window (SW) of about l-3 days (see Table 3). AIC Research (2003) also reported that longer detection time of drugs is due to high doses and high urine pH.Despite of its small detection time, urine testing is still a reliable and convenient way of investigating whether a person has abused drugs in the past few days. The com parison between commonly used specimens for drug analysis is shown in Table 3.Case Study whizz Stereochemical Analysis Of 3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine And Its Main Metabolites In Human Samples Including The Catechol-Type Metabolite (3,4-Dihydroxymethamphetamine)ObjectivesThis case study aims to observe the enantioselective disposition of MDMA and its major metabolites, 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA), 3,4-dihydroxymethamphetamine (HHMA) and 4-hydroxy-3-methoxymethamphetamine (HMMA) in human urine. The R versus S enantiomer of MDMA and its metabolites in urine samples after administration of known amount of MDMA is also calculated. Other than that, the use of indirect method in determining concentration of MDMA and its metabolites by chemical derivatization is also illustrated.Results and DiscussionUrine samples were obtained from seven healthy recreational users of MDMA. They were given a single 100-mg oral dose of (R,S)-MDMAHCl (Pizarro et al., 2004). Participants were p henotyped with dextromethorphan for CYP2D6 enzyme activity and all were categorized as extensive metabolizers (Schmid et al., 1985). Urine samples were collected before and after drug administration at 0 to 2, 2 to 6, 6 to 12, 12 to 24, 24 to 48 and 48 to 72 hour time periods, acidified with HCl, and stored at around 20C until analysis (Pizarro et al., 2004). The samples and standard solutions were analyzed by GC/MS using achiral column with 5% phenyl 95% dimethylpolysiloxane cross link (15 m 0.25 mm 0.25 m film thickness) before and after a chiral derivatization.MDMA in the urine sample was derivatized using (R)-(-)--methoxy--trifluoromethylphenylacetyl chloride (Figure 16) in ethyl acetate/hexane (5050) that contained 0.015% triethylamine as described by Pizarro et al. (2003). Derivatization step functions to induce volatility to the sample for GC analysis (Beesley and Scott, 1998). A baseline enantiomeric separation was obtained for all the canvass compounds in a single run. Chiral analysis of plasma and urine samples was carried out by combining the extraction procedure developed for the high performance liquid chromatography analysis method for HHMA quantification (Segura et al., 2002) and derivatization steps developed for GC/MS determination of enantiomers of MDMA, MDA, HMMA, and HMA (Pizarro et al., 2003). Extraction and derivatization coupling was not achieved easily because chemical properties of extracted samples make it impossible for the target compounds to be derivatized. The presence of considerable amounts of HCl in the elution mixture was responsible for the formation of the corresponding amine chlorhydrate salts making amine reaction unfeasible. An attempt using evaporation of extracts to eliminate HCl be